Chapter 13 Nutrition through the Life Cycle: From Childhood to the Elderly Years

Changes during Childhood

Early childhood encompasses infancy and the toddler years, from birth through age three. The remaining part of childhood is the period from ages four through eight and is the time when children enter school. A number of critical physiological and emotional changes take place during this life stage. For example, a child’s limbs lengthen steadily, while the growth of other body parts begins to slow down. By age ten, the skull and the brain have grown to near-adult size.Beverly McMillan, Human Body: A Visual Guide (Sydney, Australia: Weldon Owen, 2006), 258. Emotional and psychological changes occur as well. Children’s attitudes and opinions about food deepen. They not only begin taking their cues about food preferences from family members, but also from peers and the larger culture. All of these factors should impact the nutritional choices parents make for their children. This time in a child’s life provides an opportunity for parents and other caregivers to reinforce good eating habits and to introduce new foods into the diet, while remaining mindful of a child’s preferences. Parents should also serve as role models for their children, who will often mimic their behavior and eating habits.

Changes during Puberty

The onset of pubertyThe period of the human life cycle between ages nine to thirteen, nutritionally speaking. is the beginning of adolescenceThe period of the human life cycle between ages fourteen to eighteen, nutritionally speaking., and is the bridge between the childhood years and young adulthood. Medically, adolescence is defined as the period between ages eleven and fourteen for girls and between twelve to fifteen for boys. For the purpose of discussing the influence of nutritional choices during the life cycle, this text will follow the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, which divides the adolescent years into two stages: ages nine to thirteen, or puberty, and ages fourteen to eighteen, or late adolescence. We will discuss puberty first. Some of the important physiological changes that take place during this stage include the development of primary sex characteristics, or the reproductive organs, along with the onset of menstruation in females. This life stage is also characterized by the appearance of secondary sex characteristics, such as the growth of facial and body hair, the development of breasts in girls, and the deepening of the voice in boys. Other physical changes include rapid growth and alterations in body proportions.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and Daphne R. Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and Health Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 170–71. All of these changes, as well as the accompanying mental and emotional adjustments, should be supported with sound nutrition.

Changes in Late Adolescence

The Dietary Guidelines defines the next phase of the human life cycle, late adolescence, as the period from ages fourteen to eighteen. After puberty, the rate of physical growth slows down. Girls stop growing taller around age sixteen, while boys continue to grow taller until ages eighteen to twenty. One of the psychological and emotional changes that takes place during this life stage includes the desire for independence as adolescents develop individual identities apart from their families.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and Daphne R. Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and Health Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 171–76. As teenagers make more and more of their dietary decisions, parents or other caregivers and authority figures should guide them toward appropriate, nutritious choices.

Changes in Young Adulthood

The next phase, young adulthood, is the period from ages nineteen to thirty. It is a stable time compared to childhood and adolescence. Physical growth has been completed and all of the organs and body systems are fully developed. Typically, a young adult who is active has reached his or her physical peak and is in prime health. For example, vital capacity, or the maximum amount of air that the lungs can inhale and exhale, is at its peak between the ages of twenty and forty.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and Daphne R. Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and Health Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 192–93. Proper nutrition and adequate physical activity at this stage not only promote wellness in the present, but also provide a solid foundation for the future.

Changes in Middle Age

Nutritionally speaking, middle age is defined as the period from age thirty-one to fifty. The early period of this stage is very different from the end. For example, during the early years of middle age, many women experience pregnancy, childbirth, and lactation. In the latter part of this life stage, women face perimenopause, which is a transition period that leads up to menopause, or the end of menstruation. A number of physical changes take place in the middle-aged years, including the loss of bone mass in women due to dropping levels of estrogen during menopause. In both men and women, visual acuity declines, and by age forty there can be a decreased ability to see objects at a close distance, a condition known as presbyopia.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and Daphne R. Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and Health Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 192–93. All of these are signs of aging, as the human body begins to change in subtle and not-so-subtle ways. However, a middle aged person can remain vital, healthy, and near his or her physical peak with proper diet and adequate exercise.

Changes in the Older Adult Years

The senior, or elderly, years are the period from age fifty-one until the end of life. A number of physiological and emotional changes take place during this life stage. For example, many elderly adults face serious health challenges, such as cancer, heart disease, diabetes, or dementia. Both men and women experience a loss of muscle mass and strength and undergo changes in body composition. Fat deposits build up in the abdominal area, which increases the risk for Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The skin becomes thinner and may take longer to heal after an injury. Around age seventy, men begin to experience bone loss when estrogen and testosterone levels begin to decline.American Medical Association, Complete Guide to Prevention and Wellness (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008), 512. Healthy nutritional choices can help to prevent or manage disability and chronic conditions.

In addition, disorders of the nervous system can have profound effects. DementiaA disorder of the nervous system characterized by changes in the normal activity of the brain. is the umbrella term for changes in the normal activity of the brain. Elderly adults who suffer from dementia may experience memory loss, agitation, and delusions. One in eight people over age sixty-four and almost half of all people over eighty-five suffer from the brain disorder Alzheimer’s disease, which is the most common form of dementia.American Medical Association, Complete Guide to Prevention and Wellness (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008), 421. Neurological disorder and psychological conditions, such as depression, can influence attitudes toward food, along with the ability to prepare or ingest food. They might lead some adults to overindulge to compensate for stress or emotions that are difficult to handle. Other adults might eat less or pay less attention to their diet and nutritional needs. Elderly adults may also need guidance from dietitians and health-care professionals to make the best dietary choices for this stage of life.

Changing Needs and Nutrition

Nutritional needs continue to change at each stage of life. It is important to adjust your diet and physical activity to meet these changing needs and ensure health and wellness throughout your life. Parents must continue to help their school-aged children and adolescents establish healthy eating habits and attitudes toward food. Their primary role is to bring a wide variety of health-promoting foods into the home, so that their children can make good choices. As children become adults, they must be mindful of the choices they make and how those choices affect their health, not only in the present but also in the future.

Childhood (Ages Four to Eight): “Growing Pains”

In school-aged children, muscle mass and strength increase and motor skills show improvement.

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At this life stage, a healthy diet facilitates physical and mental development and helps to maintain health and wellness. School-aged children experience steady, consistent growth, with an average growth rate of 2–3 inches (5–7 centimeters) in height and 4.5–6.5 pounds (2–3 kilograms) in weight per year. In addition, the rate of growth for the extremities is faster than for the trunk, which results in more adult-like proportions. Long-bone growth stretches muscles and ligaments, which results in many children experiencing “growing pains,” at nighttime in particular.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and Daphne R. Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and Health Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 150–51.

Factors Influencing Intake

A number of factors can influence children’s eating habits and attitudes toward food. Family environment, societal trends, taste preferences, and messages in the media all impact the emotions that children develop in relation to their diet. Television commercials can entice children to consume sugary products, fatty fast-foods, excess calories, refined ingredients, and sodium. Therefore, it is critical that parents and caregivers direct children toward healthy choices.

One way to encourage children to eat healthy foods is to make meal- and snack-time fun and interesting. Parents should include children in food planning and preparation, for example selecting items while grocery shopping or helping to prepare part of a meal, such as making a salad. At this time, parents can also educate children about kitchen safety. It might be helpful to cut sandwiches, meats, or pancakes into small or interesting shapes. In addition, parents should offer nutritious desserts, such as fresh fruits, instead of calorie-laden cookies, cakes, salty snacks, and ice cream. Also, studies show that children who eat family meals on a frequent basis consume more nutritious foods.Dakota County, Minnesota. “Research on the Benefits of Family Meals.” © 2006. Last revised April 30, 2012. http://www.co.dakota.mn.us/Departments/PublicHealth/Projects/ResearchFamilyMeals.htm.

Children and Malnutrition

Malnutrition is a problem many children face, in both developing nations and the developed world. Even with the wealth of food in North America, many children grow up malnourished, or even hungry. The US Census Bureau characterizes households into the following groups:

• food secure
• food insecure without hunger
• food insecure with moderate hunger
• food insecure with severe hunger

Millions of children grow up in food-insecure households with inadequate diets due to both the amount of available food and the quality of food. In the United States, about 20 percent of households with children are food insecure to some degree. In half of those, only adults experience food insecurity, while in the other half both adults and children are considered to be food insecure, which means that children did not have access to adequate, nutritious meals at times.Coleman-Jensen, A. et al. “Household Food Security in the United States in 2010.” US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Report, no. ERR-125 (September 2011).

Growing up in a food-insecure household can lead to a number of problems. Deficiencies in iron, zinc, protein, and vitamin A can result in stunted growth, illness, and limited development. Federal programs, such as the National School Lunch Program, the School Breakfast Program, and Summer Feeding Programs, work to address the risk of hunger and malnutrition in school-aged children. They help to fill the gaps and provide children living in food-insecure households with greater access to nutritious meals. You will learn more about food insecurity and the consequences for children and adults in Chapter 14 "Nutrition and Society: Food Politics and Perspectives".

Children and Vegetarianism

Another issue that some parents face with school-aged children is the decision to encourage a child to become a vegetarian or a vegan. Some parents and caregivers decide to raise their children as vegetarians for health, cultural, or other reasons. Preteens and teens may make the choice to pursue vegetarianism on their own, due to concerns about animals or the environment. No matter the reason, parents with vegetarian children must take care to ensure vegetarian children get healthy, nutritious foods that provide all the necessary nutrients.

Food Allergies and Food Intolerance

As discussed in Chapter 12 "Nutrition through the Life Cycle: From Pregnancy to the Toddler Years", the development of food allergies is a concern during the toddler years. This remains an issue for school-aged children. Recent studies show that three million children under age eighteen are allergic to at least one type of food.American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. “Allergy Statistics.” Accessed on March 5, 2012. http://www.aaaai.org/about-the-aaaai/newsroom/allergy-statistics.aspx. Some of the most common allergenic foods include peanuts, milk, eggs, soy, wheat, and shellfish. An allergy occurs when a protein in food triggers an immune response, which results in the release of antibodies, histamine, and other defenders that attack foreign bodies. Possible symptoms include itchy skin, hives, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and nausea. Symptoms usually develop within minutes to hours after consuming a food allergen. Children can outgrow a food allergy, especially allergies to wheat, milk, eggs, or soy.

AnaphylaxisA life-threatening, extreme immune response to a food allergen. Anaphylaxis can result in difficulty breathing, swelling in the mouth and throat, decreased blood pressure, shock, and death. is a life-threatening reaction that results in difficulty breathing, swelling in the mouth and throat, decreased blood pressure, shock, or even death. Milk, eggs, wheat, soybeans, fish, shellfish, peanuts, and tree nuts are the most likely to trigger this type of response. A dose of the drug epinephrine is often administered via a “pen” to treat a person who goes into anaphylactic shock.National Institutes of Health, US Department of Health and Human Services. “Food Allergy Quick Facts.” Accessed March 5, 2012. http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/foodallergy/understanding/pages/quickfacts.aspx.

Some children experience a food intolerance, which does not involve an immune response. A food intolerance is marked by unpleasant symptoms that occur after consuming certain foods. Lactose intolerance, though rare in very young children, is one example. Children who suffer from this condition experience an adverse reaction to the lactose in milk products. It is a result of the small intestine’s inability to produce enough of the enzyme lactase, which is produced by the small intestine. Symptoms of lactose intolerance usually affect the GI tract and can include bloating, abdominal pain, gas, nausea, and diarrhea. An intolerance is best managed by making dietary changes and avoiding any foods that trigger the reaction.National Digestive Disease Information Clearinghouse, a service of National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health. “Lactose Intolerance.” NIH Publication No. 09–2751 (June 2009). Last updated April 23, 2012. http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/lactoseintolerance/.

The Threat of Lead Toxicity

There is a danger of lead toxicity, or lead poisoning, among school-aged children. Lead is found in plumbing in old homes, in lead-based paint, and occasionally in the soil. Contaminated food and water can increase exposure and result in hazardous lead levels in the blood. Children under age six are especially vulnerable. They may consume items tainted with lead, such as chipped, lead-based paint. Another common exposure is lead dust in carpets, with the dust flaking off of paint on walls. When children play or roll around on carpets coated with lead, they are in jeopardy. Lead is indestructible, and once it has been ingested it is difficult for the human body to alter or remove it. It can quietly build up in the body for months, or even years, before the onset of symptoms. Lead toxicity can damage the brain and central nervous system, resulting in impaired thinking, reasoning, and perception.

Treatment for lead poisoning includes removing the child from the source of contamination and extracting lead from the body. Extraction may involve chelation therapy, which binds with lead so it can be excreted in urine. Another treatment protocol, EDTA therapy, involves administering a drug called ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid to remove lead from the bloodstream of patients with levels greater than 45 mcg/dL.Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. “Lead poisoning.” ©1998–2012 Accessed March 5, 2012. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/lead-poisoning/FL00068. Fortunately, lead toxicity is highly preventable. It involves identifying potential hazards, such as lead paint and pipes, and removing them before children are exposed to them.

The Onset of Puberty (Ages Nine to Thirteen)

Puberty typically begins slightly earlier in girls than in boys. For girls, puberty often begins around age eleven, while for boys it begins around age twelve.

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This period of physical development is divided into two phases. The first phase involves height increases from 20 to 25 percent. Puberty is second to the prenatal period in terms of rapid growth as the long bones stretch to their final, adult size. Girls grow 2–8 inches (5–20 centimeters) taller, while boys grow 4–12 inches (10–30 centimeters) taller. The second phase involves weight gain related to the development of bone, muscle, and fat tissue. Also in the midst of puberty, the sex hormones trigger the development of reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics, such as pubic hair. Girls also develop “curves,” while boys become broader and more muscular.Beverly McMillan, Illustrated Atlas of the Human Body (Sydney, Australia: Weldon Owen, 2008), 258.

Childhood Obesity

Frequent television, computer, and video game usage leads to a sedentary lifestyle, which, along with poor diet, contributes to childhood obesity.

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Children need adequate caloric intake for growth, and it is important not to impose very restrictive diets. However, exceeding caloric requirements on a regular basis can lead to childhood obesity, which has become a major problem in North America. Nearly one of three US children and adolescents are overweight or obese.Let’s Move. “Learn the Facts.” Accessed March 5, 2012. http://www.letsmove.gov/learn-facts/epidemic-childhood-obesity. In Canada, approximately 26 percent of children and adolescents are overweight or obese.Childhood Obesity Foundation. “Statistics.” Accessed March 5, 2012. http://www.childhoodobesityfoundation.ca/statistics.

There are a number of reasons behind this problem, including:

• larger portion sizes
• limited access to nutrient-rich foods
• increased access to fast foods and vending machines
• lack of breastfeeding support
• declining physical education programs in schools
• insufficient physical activity and a sedentary lifestyle
• media messages encouraging the consumption of unhealthy foods

Children who suffer from obesity are more likely to become overweight or obese adults. Obesity has a profound effect on self-esteem, energy, and activity level. Even more importantly, it is a major risk factor for a number of diseases later in life, including cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, stroke, hypertension, and certain cancers.World Health Organization. “Obesity and Overweight Fact Sheet.” Last revised March 2011. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/.

A percentile for body mass index (BMI) specific to age and sex is used to determine if a child is overweight or obese. This is more appropriate than the BMI categories used for adults because the body composition of children varies as they develop, and differs between boys and girls. If a child gains weight inappropriate to growth, parents and caregivers should limit energy-dense, nutrient-poor snack foods. Also, children ages three and older can follow the National Cholesterol Education Program guidelines of no more than 35 percent of calories from fat (10 percent or less from saturated fat), and no more than 300 milligrams of cholesterol per day. In addition, it is extremely beneficial to increase a child’s physical activity and limit sedentary activities, such as watching television, playing video games, or surfing the Internet.

Programs to address childhood obesity can include behavior modification, exercise counseling, psychological support or therapy, family counseling, and family meal-planning advice. For most, the goal is not weight loss, but rather allowing height to catch up with weight as the child continues to grow. Rapid weight loss is not recommended for preteens or younger children due to the risk of deficiencies and stunted growth.

Adolescence (Ages Fourteen to Eighteen): Transitioning into Adulthood

As during puberty, growth and development during adolescence differs in males than in females. In teenage girls, fat assumes a larger percentage of body weight, while teenage boys experience greater muscle and bone increases. For both, primary and secondary sex characteristics have fully developed and the rate of growth slows with the end of puberty. Also, the motor functions of an older adolescent are comparable to those of an adult.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and Daphne R. Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and Health Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 171–173. Again, adequate nutrition and healthy choices support this stage of growth and development.

Eating Disorders

Many teens struggle with an eating disorderA behavioral condition that involves extreme attitudes and behaviors toward food and nutrition. These disorders are characterized by overeating or undereating, and include anorexia nervosa, binge-eating disorder, and bulimia nervosa., which can have a detrimental effect on diet and health. A study published by North Dakota State University estimates that these conditions impact twenty-four million people in the United States and seventy million worldwide.North Dakota State University. “Eating Disorder Statistics.” Accessed March 5, 2012. http://www.ndsu.edu/fileadmin/counseling/Eating_Disorder_Statistics.pdf. These disorders are more prevalent among adolescent girls, but have been increasing among adolescent boys in recent years. Because eating disorders oftenlead to malnourishment, adolescents with an eating disorder are deprived of the crucial nutrients their still-growing bodies need.

Eating disorders involve extreme behavior related to food and exercise. Sometimes referred to as “starving or stuffing,” they encompass a group of conditions marked by undereating or overeating. Some of these conditions include:

• Anorexia Nervosa. Anorexia nervosa is a potentially fatal condition characterized by undereating and excessive weight loss. People with this disorder are preoccupied with dieting, calories, and food intake to an unhealthy degree. Anorexics have a poor body image, which leads to anxiety, avoidance of food, a rigid exercise regimen, fasting, and a denial of hunger. The condition predominantly affects females. Between 0.5 and 1 percent of American women and girls suffer from this eating disorder.
• Binge-Eating Disorder. People who suffer from binge-eating disorder experience regular episodes of eating an extremely large amount of food in a short period of time. Binge eating is a compulsive behavior, and people who suffer from it typically feel it is beyond their control. This behavior often causes feelings of shame and embarrassment, and leads to obesity, high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, Type 2 diabetes, and other health problems. Both males and females suffer from binge-eating disorder. It affects 1 to 5 percent of the population.
• Bulimia Nervosa. Bulimia nervosa is characterized by alternating cycles of overeating and undereating. People who suffer from it partake in binge eating, followed by compensatory behavior, such as self-induced vomiting, laxative use, and compulsive exercise. As with anorexia, most people with this condition are female. Approximately 1 to 2 percent of American women and girls have this eating disorder.National Eating Disorders Association. “Learn Basic Terms and Information on a Variety of Eating Disorder Topics.” Accessed March 5, 2012. http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/information-resources/general -information.php.

Eating disorders stem from stress, low self-esteem, and other psychological and emotional issues. It is important for parents to watch for signs and symptoms of these disorders, including sudden weight loss, lethargy, vomiting after meals, and the use of appetite suppressants. Eating disorders can lead to serious complications or even be fatal if left untreated. Treatment includes cognitive, behavioral, and nutritional therapy.

Young Adulthood (Ages Nineteen to Thirty): At Your Peak

At this time, growth is completed and people reach their physical peak. Major organs and body systems have fully matured by this stage of the life cycle. For example, the human body reaches maximum cardiac output between ages twenty and thirty. Also, bone and muscle mass are at optimal levels, and physical activity helps to improve muscle strength, endurance, and tone.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and Daphne R. Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and Health Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 192–193. In order to maintain health and fitness at this age, it is important to continue to practice good nutrition. Healthy eating habits promote metabolic functioning, assist repair and regeneration, and prevent the development of chronic conditions. In addition, the goals of a young adult, such as beginning a career or seeking out romantic relationships, can be supported with good habits.

Gastrointestinal Integrity

Good nutrition during the young adult years can help to support gastrointestinal integrity and prevent digestive disorders, such as constipation and diarrhea. Dietary fiber helps bind indigestible food together and normalize bowel movements. It also holds more water in the stool to make it softer for those who suffer from constipation. Excellent sources of fiber include oats, barley, rye, wheat, brown rice, celery, carrots, nuts, seeds, dried beans, oranges, and apples. In addition, healthy intestinal microflora can be supported by prebiotics, which stimulate the growth of beneficial bacteria already in the colon and are found in fruits and vegetables, and probiotics, which change or improve the bacterial balance in the gut and are found in yogurt.

Obesity during Adulthood

Obesity remains a major concern into young adulthood. For adults, a BMI above 25 is considered overweight, and a BMI of 30 or higher is obese. By that measurement, about two-thirds of all adults in the United States are overweight or obese, with 35.7 percent considered to be obese.Centers for Disease Control, National Center for Health Statistics. “Prevalence of Obesity in the United States, 2009–2010.” NCHS Data Brief, No. 82, January 2012, accessed on March 5, 2012. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db82.pdf. As during childhood and adolescence, physical inactivity and poor dietary choices are major contributors to obesity in adulthood. Solid fats, alcohol, and added sugars (SoFAAS) make up 35 percent of total calories for most people, leading to high levels of saturated fat and cholesterol and insufficient dietary fiber. Therefore, it is important to limit unrefined carbohydrates and processed foods.

Middle Age (Ages Thirty-One to Fifty): Aging Well

Many people in their late thirties and in their forties notice a decline in endurance, the onset of wear-and-tear injuries (such as osteoarthritis), and changes in the digestive system. Wounds and other injuries also take longer to heal. Body composition changes due to fat deposits in the trunk. To maintain health and wellness during the middle-aged years and beyond, it is important to:

• maintain a healthy body weight
• consume nutrient-dense foods
• drink alcohol moderately or not at all
• be a nonsmoker
• engage in moderate physical activity at least 150 minutes per week

Preventive/Defensive Nutrition

Brightly colored tomatoes are another example of foods that are high in antioxidants.

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During the middle-aged years, preventive nutritionThe use of dietary practices to reduce disease and promote health and well-being. can promote wellness and help organ systems to function optimally throughout aging. Preventive nutrition is defined as dietary practices directed toward reducing disease and promoting health and well-being. Healthy eating in general—such as eating unrefined carbohydrates instead of refined carbohydrates and avoiding trans fats and saturated fats—helps to promote wellness. However, there are also some things that people can do to target specific concerns. One example is consuming foods high in antioxidants, such as strawberries, blueberries, and other colorful fruits and vegetables, to reduce the risk of cancer.

Phytochemicals are compounds in fruits and vegetables that act as defense systems for plants. Different phytochemicals are beneficial in different ways. For example, carotenoids, which are found in carrots, cantaloupes, sweet potatoes, and butternut squash, may protect against cardiovascular disease by helping to prevent the oxidation of cholesterol in the arteries, although research is ongoing.Sari Voutilainen, Tarja Nurmi, Jaakko Mursu, and Tiina H. Rissanen. “Carotenoids and Cardiovascular Health.” Am J Clin Nutr 83 (2006): 1265–71. http://www.ajcn.org/content/83/6/1265.full.pdf. According to the American Cancer Society, some studies suggest that a phytochemical found in watermelons and tomatoes called lycopene may protect against stomach, lung, and prostate cancer, although more research is needed.American Cancer Society. “Lycopene.” Last revised May 13, 2010. http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/DietandNutrition/lycopene.

Omega-3 fatty acids can help to prevent coronary artery disease. These crucial nutrients are found in oily fish, including salmon, mackerel, tuna, herring, cod, and halibut. Other beneficial fats that are vital for healthy functioning include monounsaturated fats, which are found in plant oils, avocados, peanuts, and pecans.

Menopause

In the middle-aged years, women undergo a specific change that has a major effect on their health. They begin the process of menopause, typically in their late forties or early fifties. The ovaries slowly cease to produce estrogen and progesterone, which results in the end of menstruation. Menopausal symptoms can vary, but often include hot flashes, night sweats, and mood changes. The hormonal changes that occur during menopause can lead to a number of physiological changes as well, including alterations in body composition, such as weight gain in the abdominal area. Bone loss is another common condition related to menopause due to the loss of female reproductive hormones. Bone thinning increases the risk of fractures, which can affect mobility and the ability to complete everyday tasks, such as cooking, bathing, and dressing.Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. “Eating Right During Menopause.” © 1995–2012. Accessed March 5, 2012. http://www.eatright.org/Public/content.aspx?id=6809. Recommendations for women experiencing menopause or perimenopause (the stage just prior to the end of the menstruation) include:

• consuming a variety of whole grains, and other nutrient-dense foods
• maintaining a diet high in fiber, low in fat, and low in sodium
• avoiding caffeine, spicy foods, and alcohol to help prevent hot flashes
• eating foods rich in calcium, or taking physician-prescribed calcium supplements and vitamin D
• doing stretching exercises to improve balance and flexibility and reduce the risk of falls and fractures

Older Adulthood (Ages Fifty-One and Older): The Golden Years

An adult’s body changes during old age in many ways, including a decline in hormone production, muscle mass, and strength. Also in the later years, the heart has to work harder because each pump is not as efficient as it used to be. Kidneys are not as effective in excreting metabolic products such as sodium, acid, and potassium, which can alter water balance and increase the risk for over- or underhydration. In addition, immune function decreases and there is lower efficiency in the absorption of vitamins and minerals.

Regular exercise, along with a nutritious diet, can help older adults maintain their health.

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Older adults should continue to consume nutrient-dense foods and remain physically active. However, deficiencies are more common after age sixty, primarily due to reduced intake or malabsorption. The loss of mobility among frail, homebound elderly adults also impacts their access to healthy, diverse foods.

Nutritional Concerns for Older Adults

Dietary choices can help improve health during this life stage and address some of the nutritional concerns that many older adults face. In addition, there are specific concerns related to nutrition that affect adults in their later years. They include medical problems, such as disability and disease, which can impact diet and activity level. For example, dental problems can lead to difficulties with chewing and swallowing, which in turn can make it hard to maintain a healthy diet. The use of dentures or the preparation of pureed or chopped foods can help solve this problem. There also is a decreased thirst response in the elderly, and the kidneys have a decreased ability to concentrate urine, both of which can lead to dehydration.

Longevity and Nutrition

The foods you consume in your younger years influence your health as you age. Good nutrition and regular physical activity can help you live longer and healthier. Conversely, poor nutrition and a lack of exercise can shorten your life and lead to medical problems. The right foods provide numerous benefits at every stage of life. They help an infant grow, an adolescent develop mentally and physically, a young adult achieve his or her physical peak, and an older adult cope with aging. Nutritious foods form the foundation of a healthy life at every age.