Chapter 14 Nutrition and Society: Food Politics and Perspectives

Meals Determined Social Status

In ancient Rome, differences in social standing affected the diet. For people of all socioeconomic classes, breakfast and lunch were typically light meals that were often consumed in taverns and cafes. However, dinners were eaten at home and were taken much more seriously. Wealthy senators and landowners ate meals with multiple courses, including appetizers, entrees, and desserts. Rich Romans also held extravagant dinner parties, where guests dined on exotic foods, such as roasted ostrich or pheasant. In contrast, people of the lower classes ate mostly bread and cereals.PBS. “Home Life.” The Roman Empire in the First Century. © 2006 Devillier Donegan Enterprises. http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/home.html. The average person ate out of clay dishes, while wealthy people used bronze, gold, or silver.

Social status determined the kinds of food that people consumed in many other parts of the world as well. In ancient China, emperors used their wealth and power to hire the best chefs and acquire delicacies, such as honey, to sweeten food. Dishes of the ancient era included steamed Mandarin fish, rice and wheat noodles, and fried prawns. Imperial cuisine also included improved versions of dishes that were consumed by the common people, such as soups and cereals.China.org. “The History of Chinese Imperial Cuisines.” © China Information Center. Accessed December 5, 2011. http://www.china.org.cn/english/imperial/25995.htm.

The Crusades

During the Medieval Era, soldiers from Europe waged war over religion in the Middle East in military campaigns that came to be known as the Crusades. Upon their return, the crusaders brought back new foods and spices, exposing Europeans of the Middle Ages to unusual flavors. Cooking with exotic spices, such as black pepper, saffron, and ginger, became associated with wealth because they were expensive and had to be imported.

Food Preservation in the Past

During the Medieval and Renaissance eras, most meals consisted of locally grown crops because it was extremely difficult to transport food over long distances. This was mostly due to an inability to preserve food for long periods. At that time, food preservation consisted mostly of drying, salting, and smoking. Pickling, which is also known as brining or corning, was another common practice and involved the use of fermentation to preserve food.

Food Preservation in Modern Times

Technological innovations during the 1800s and 1900s also changed the way we cultivate, prepare, and think about food. The invention and refinement of the refrigerator and freezer made it possible for people to store food for much longer periods. This, in turn, allowed for the transportation of food over greater distances. For example, oranges grown in Florida would still be fresh when they arrived in Seattle.

Prior to refrigeration, people relied on a number of different methods to store and preserve food, such as pickling. Other preservation techniques included using sugar or honey, canning, and preparing a confit, which is one of the oldest ways to preserve food and involves salting meat and cooking it in its own fat. To store foods for long periods, people used iceboxes or kept vegetables, such as potatoes, onions, and winter squash, in cellars during the winter months.

The Great Depression

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the United States faced incredible food shortages and many people went hungry. This was partly because extreme droughts turned parts of the Midwest into a Dust Bowl, where farmers struggled to raise crops. Millions of Americans were unemployed or underemployed and were forced to wait in long breadlines for free food. This was also a period of incredible reforms, as the government worked to provide for and protect the people. Some important changes included subsidiesFederal funding given to an agricultural producer to provide assistance and support. and support for suffering farmers.

World War II

Food shortages also occurred during World War II in the 1940s. At that time, people voluntarily made due with less to ensure that soldiers training and fighting overseas had the supplies they needed. To focus on saving at home, government programs included rationing food (particularly meat, butter, and sugar), while the media encouraged families to plant their own fruits and vegetables in “victory” (backyard) gardens.

Contemporary Life

Today, agriculture remains a large part of the economy in many developing nations. In fact, nearly 50 percent of the world’s labor is employed in agriculture.Bioworld. “History of Agriculture.” Accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.bioworldusa.com/agriculture/history-agriculture. In the United States however, less than 2 percent of Americans produce food for the rest of the population.Gold, M.V. “Sustainable Agriculture: Definitions and Terms.” US Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library. Special Reference Briefs Series no. SRB 99-02 (September 1999, August 2007). http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/terms/srb9902.shtml#toc1. Also, most farms are no longer small-scale or family-owned. Large-scale agribusiness is typical for both crop cultivation and livestock rearing, including concentrated animal feeding operations. Conventional farming practices can include abuses to animals and the land. Therefore, more and more consumers have begun to seek out organic and locally grown foods from smaller-scale farms that are less harmful to the environment.

Other changes also affect food production and consumption in the modern era. The invention of the microwave in the 1950s spurred the growth of frozen foods and TV dinners. Appliances such as blenders and food processors, toasters, coffee and espresso machines, deep fryers, and indoor grills have all contributed to the convenience of food preparation and the kinds of meals that people enjoy cooking and eating.

Food Preservation

Food preservation protects consumers from harmful or toxic food. There are different ways to preserve food. Some are ancient methods that have been practiced for generations, such as curing, smoking, pickling, salting, fermenting, canning, and preserving fruit in the form of jam. Others include the use of modern techinques and technology, including drying, vacuum packing, pasteurization, and freezing and refrigeration. Preservation guards against food-bourne illnesses, and also protects the flavor, color, moisture content, or nutritive value of food.

Food Processing

Food processing includes the methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into packaged food. Workers in this industry use harvested crops or slaughtered and butchered livestock to create products that are marketed to the public. There are different ways in which food can be processed, from a one-off product, such as a wedding cake, to a mass-produced product, such as a line of cupcakes packaged and sold in stores.

The Pros and Cons of Food Processing

Pictured here are English muffins as they run along a conveyor belt at a bakery production plant.

© Thinkstock

Food processing has a number of important benefits, such as creating products that have a much longer shelf life than raw foods. Also, food processing protects the health of the consumer and allows for easier shipment and the marketing of foods by corporations. However, there are certain drawbacks. Food processing can reduce the nutritional content of raw ingredients. For example, canning involves the use of heat, which destroys the vitamin C in canned fruit. Also, certain food additives that are included during processing, such as high fructose corn syrup, can affect the health of a consumer. However, the level of added sugar can make a major difference. Small amounts of added sugar and other sweeteners, about 6 to 9 teaspoons a day or less, are not considered harmful.American Heart Association. “Sugar and Carbohydrates.” Last updated October 12, 2010. http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/NutritionCenter/HealthyDietGoals/Sugars-and-Carbohydrates_UCM_303296_Article.jsp#.

Regulatory Agencies

Food regulation is divided among different agencies, primarily the FDA and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). Regulatory agencies in Canada include the Canadian Food Inspection Agency and Health Canada. The North American public depends on these and other agencies to ensure that the food they purchase and consume from supermarkets, restaurants, and other sources is safe and healthy to eat. It can be confusing to know which agency monitors and manages which regulatory practice. For example, the FDA oversees the safety of eggs when they’re in the shells, while the USDA is in charge of the eggs once they are out of their shells.

Food Additives

If you examine the label for a processed food product, it is not unusual to see a long list of added materials. These natural or synthetic substances are food additivesNatural or man-made substance added to a food product during the processing stage to improve its quality. and there are more than three hundred used during food processing today. The most popular additives are benzoates, nitrites, sulfites, and sorbates, which prevent molds and yeast from growing on food.How Stuff Works. “The Dangers of Food Additives.” Accessed October 5, 2011. http://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/food-nutrition/facts/dangers-of-food -additives.htm.

Food additives are introduced in the processing stage for a variety of reasons. Some control acidity and alkalinity, while others enhance the color or flavor of food. Some additives stabilize food and keep it from breaking down, while others add body or texture. Table 14.1 "Food Additives" lists some common food additives and their uses:

Genetically Modified Foods

Genetically modified foodsFood products made from animals or plants that have undergone genetic engineering. (also known as GM or GMO foods), are plants or animals that have undergone some form of genetic engineering. In the United States, much of the soybean, corn, and canola crop is genetically modified. The process involves the alteration of an organism’s DNA, which allows farmers to cultivate plants with desirable characteristics.Genomics.Energy.gov. “What Are Genetically Modified Foods?” Last modified November 5, 2008. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/gmfood.shtml. For example, scientists could extract a gene that produces a chemical with antifreeze properties from a fish that lives in an arctic region (such as a flounder). They could then splice that gene into a completely different species, such as a tomato, to make it resistant to frost, which would enable farms to grow that crop year-round.Whitman, D. B. “Genetically Modified Foods: Harmful or Helpful?” ProQuest Discovery Guides (April 2000). http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/overview.php.

Certain modifications can be beneficial in resisting pests or pesticides, improving the ripening process, increasing the nutritional content of food, or providing resistance to common viruses. Although genetic engineering has improved productivity for farmers, it has also stirred up debate about consumer safety and environmental protection. Possible side effects related to the consumption of GM foods include an increase in allergenicity, or tendencies to provoke allergic reactions. There is also some concern related to the possible transfer of the genes used to create genetically engineered foods from plants to people. This could influence human health if antibiotic-resistant genes are transferred to the consumer. Therefore, the World Health Organization (WHO) and other groups have encouraged the use of genetic engineering without antibiotic-resistance genes. Genetically modified plants may adversely affect the environment as well and could lead to the contamination of nongenetically engineered organisms.World Health Organization. “Food Safety: 20 Questions on Genetically Modified Foods.” © 2011. http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/.

Genetically modified foods fall under the purview of the EPA, the USDA, and the FDA. Each agency has different responsibilities and concerns in the regulation of GM crops. The EPA ensures that pesticides used for GM plants are safe for the environment. The USDA makes sure genetically engineered seeds are safe for cultivation prior to planting. The FDA determines if foods made from GM plants are safe to eat. Although these agencies act independently, they work closely together and many products are reviewed by all three.Whitman, D. B. “Genetically Modified Foods: Harmful or Helpful?” ProQuest Discovery Guides (April 2000).

Food Enrichment and Fortification

Many foods are enriched or fortified to boost their nutritional value. Enrichment involves adding nutrients to restore those that were lost during processing. For example, iron and certain B vitamins are added to white flour to replace the nutrients that are removed in the process of milling wheat. Fortification is slightly different than enrichment and involves adding new nutrients to enhance a food’s nutritive value. For example, folic acid is typically added to cereals and grain products, while calcium is added to some orange juice.

Food Production, Distribution, and Safety

Whole chickens are suspended at a meat production plant and will soon be separated into parts.

© Thinkstock

Many consumers have concerns about safety practices during the production and distribution of food. This is especially critical given recent outbreaks of food-borne illnesses. For example, during fall 2011 in the United States, there was an eruption of the bacteria Listeria monocytogenes in cantaloupe. It was one of the deadliest outbreaks in over a decade and resulted in a number of deaths and hospitalizations.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Multistate Outbreak of Listeriosis Associated with Jensen Farms Cantaloupe—United States.” August–September, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6039a5.htm?s_cid= mm6039a5_w.

In January 2011, the Food Safety Modernization Act was passed to grant more authority to the FDA to improve food safety. The FDA and other agencies also address consumer-related concerns about protecting the nation’s food supply in the event of a terrorist attack.

Addressing Hunger

Government agencies also play an important role in addressing hunger via federal food-assistance programs. The agencies provide debit cards (formerly distributed in the form of food vouchers or food stamps) to consumers to help them purchase food and they also provide other forms of aid to low-income adults and families who face hunger and nutritional deficits. This topic will be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.

The Dual Role of the USDA

The USDA has a dual role in the advancement of American agribusiness and the promotion of health and nutrition among the public. This can create conflicts of interest, and some question whether the USDA values the interests of the agriculture and food industries over consumer health.

However, there is no question that the USDA makes a great deal of effort to educate the public about diet and nutrition. Working with the US Department of Health and Human Services, the agency codeveloped the Dietary Guidelines for Americans to inform consumers about the ways their dietary habits affect their health. The USDA also implements all federal nutrition programs.

The Farm Bill

The Farm Bill (introduced in 1990) is a massive piece of legislation that determines the farm and food policy of the federal government. It addresses policy related to federal food programs and other responsibilities of the USDA. The Farm Bill also covers a wide range of agricultural programs and provisions, including farm subsidies and rural development. And, it influences international trade, commodity prices, environmental preservation, and food safety.

The massive Farm Bill is updated and renewed every five years. Over the decades, it has expanded to incorporate new issues, such as conservation and bioenergy. The Farm Bill passed in 2008, known as the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act, included new policy on horticulture and livestock provisions. The 2008 bill also differed from previous legislation in terms of the large number and scope of proposals that were raised.Johnson, R. and J. Monke, “What Is the ‘Farm Bill’?” Congressional Research Service. CRS Report for Congress, no. RS22131 (January 3, 2011). http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RS22131.pdf.

Agricultural Subsidies

The Farm Bill can directly and indirectly have wide-ranging effects. For example, the bill dictates subsidies and other forms of agricultural funding or support. Farmers rely on this kind of support to offset varying crop yields and unfavorable weather conditions. The agricultural industry also depends on the federal government to provide some form of price control to guard against flooding the market and dragging down prices. As an example, major changes in the policy of agricultural subsidies were implemented in the 1970s to increase farm incomes and produce cheaper food. As a result of these policies and subsidies, much more corn was grown, giving rise to high fructose corn syrup as a primary sweetener in a number of products today, since corn syrup is cheaper to produce. It is also sweeter than cane sugar, which encouraged its widespread use.

Historically, Congress has pursued farm support programs to ensure that the US population has continued access to abundant and affordable food. However, some leaders worry about the effectiveness of government programs as well as the cost to taxpayers and consumers. Others question if continued farm support is even needed and wonder if it remains compatible with current economic objectives, domestic policy, trade policy, and regulatory restrictions.Johnson, R. and J. Monke, “What Is the ‘Farm Bill’?” Congressional Research Service. CRS Report for Congress, no. RS22131 (January 3, 2011). http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RS22131.pdf. For example, federal dairy policies can raise the price of milk and other dairy products, which can detrimentally affect school lunch and food stamp programs. Regarding all of these issues, Congress must heed the demands of its constituents. In the end, it is inevitable that consumers’ growing interest in food issues will affect not only the choices they make in the grocery store, but also the decisions they make in the voting booth.

Food Security

Most American households are considered to be food secure, which means they have adequate access to food and consume enough nutrients to achieve a healthy lifestyle. However, a minority of US households experiences food insecurity at certain points during the year, which means their access to food is limited due to a lack of money or other resources. This graphic shows the percentage of food-secure and food-insecure households in the United States during the year 2010.

Food Insecurity

Food insecurity is defined as not having adequate access to food that meets nutritional needs. According to the USDA, about 48.8 million people live in food-insecure households and have reported multiple indications of food access problems. About sixteen million of those have “very low food security,” which means one or more people in the household were hungry at some point over the course of a year due to the inability to afford enough food. The difference between low and very low food security is that members of low insecurity households have reported problems of food access, but have reported only a few instances of reduced food intake, if any.Coleman-Jensen, A. et al. “Household Food Security in the United States in 2010.” US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Report, no. ERR-125 (September 2011). African American and Hispanic households experience food insecurity at much higher rates than the national average.Coleman-Jensen, A. et al. “Household Food Security in the United States in 2010.” US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Report, no. ERR-125 (September 2011).

Households with limited resources employ a variety of methods to increase their access to adequate food. Some families purchase junk food and fast food—cheaper options that are also very unhealthy. Other families who struggle with food security supplement the groceries they purchase by participating in government assistance programs. They may also obtain food from emergency providers, such as food banks and soup kitchens in their communities.

Malnutrition

A person living in a food-insecure household may suffer from malnutrition, which results from a failure to meet nutrient requirements. This can occur as a result of consuming too little food or not enough key nutrients. There are two basic types of malnutrition. The first is macronutrient deficiency and relates to the lack of adequate protein, which is required for cell growth, maintenance, and repair. The second type of malnutrition is micronutrient deficiency and relates to inadequate vitamin and mineral intake.World Hunger. “2011 World Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics.” Accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/Learn/world%20hunger%20facts%202002.htm. Even people who are overweight or obese can suffer from this kind of malnutrition if they eat foods that do not meet all of their nutritional needs.

The Homeless

One of the groups that struggles with hunger are the millions of homeless people across North America. According to a recent study by the US Conference of Mayors, the majority of reporting cities saw an increase in the number of homeless families.The United States Conference of Mayors. “Hunger and Homelessness Survey: A Status Report on Hunger and Homelessness in America’s Cities, a 27-City Survey.” December 2009. http://usmayors.org/pressreleases/uploads/USCMHungercompleteWEB2009.pdf. Hunger and homelessness often go hand-in-hand as homeless families and adults turn to soup kitchens or food pantries or resort to begging for food.

Children

Rising hunger rates in the United States particularly affect children. Nearly one out of four children, or 21.6 percent of all American children, lives in a food-insecure household and spends at least part of the year hungry.Coleman-Jensen, A. et al. “Household Food Security in the United States in 2010.” US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Report, no. ERR-125 (September 2011). Hunger delays their growth and development and affects their educational progress because it is more difficult for hungry or malnourished students to concentrate in school. In addition, children who are undernourished are more susceptible to contracting diseases, such as measles and pneumonia.World Hunger. “2011 World Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics.” Accessed October 10, 2011.

The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program

Formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) provides monthly benefits for low-income households to purchase approved food items at authorized stores. Clients qualify for the program based on available household income, assets, and certain basic expenses. In an average month, SNAP provides benefits to more than forty million people in the United States.Coleman-Jensen, A. et al. “Household Food Security in the United States in 2010.” US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Report, no. ERR-125 (September 2011).

The program provides Electronic Benefit Transfers (EBT) which work similarly to a debit card. Clients receive a card with a certain allocation of money for each month that can be used only for food. In 2010, the average benefit was about $134 per person, per month and total federal expenditures for the program were $68.2 billion.Coleman-Jensen, A. et al. “Household Food Security in the United States in 2010.” US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Report, no. ERR-125 (September 2011).

The Special, Supplemental Program for Women, Infants, and Children

The Special, Supplemental Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) provides food packages to pregnant and breastfeeding women, as well as to infants and children up to age five, to promote adequate intake for healthy growth and development. Most state WIC programs provide vouchers that participants use to acquire supplemental packages at authorized stores. In 2010, WIC served approximately 9.2 million participants per month at an average monthly cost of about forty-two dollars per person.Coleman-Jensen, A. et al. “Household Food Security in the United States in 2010.” US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Report, no. ERR-125 (September 2011).

The National School Lunch Program

The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and School Breakfast Program (SBP) ensure that children in elementary and middle schools receive at least one healthy meal each school day, or two if both the NSLP and SBP are provided. According to the USDA, these programs operate in over 101,000 public and nonprofit private schools and residential child-care institutions.US Department of Agriculture. “National School Lunch Program.” October 2011. http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/Lunch/AboutLunch/NSLPFactSheet.pdf. In 2010, the programs provided meals to an average of 31.6 million children each school day. Fifty-six percent of the lunches served were free, and an additional 10 percent were provided at reduced prices.

Other Food-Assistance Programs for Children

Other government programs provide meals for children after school hours and during summer breaks. The Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) offers meals and snacks at child-care centers, daycare homes, and after-school programs. Through CACFP, more than 3.2 million children and 112,000 adults receive nutritious meals and snacks each day.US Department of Agriculture. “Child & Adult Care Food Program.” Last modified June 10, 2011. http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/care/. The Summer Food Service Program provides meals to children during summer break. Sponsors include day camps and other recreation programs where at least half of the attendees live in households with incomes below the federal poverty level.US Department of Agriculture. “Summer Food Service Program.” st.TER 14 2011r Congressbrary. Last modified July 20, 2011. http://www.summerfood.usda.gov/default.htm. These and other programs help to fill in the gaps during the typical day of a food-insecure child.

The Head Start Program

Head Start is a health and development program for children ages three to five, from low-income families. The philosophy behind the organization is that early intervention can help address the educational, social, and nutritional deficiencies that children from lower-income families often experience. Launched in 1965, it is one of the longest-running, poverty-related programs in the United States. Today, Head Start programs include education, meals, snacks, and access to other social services and health guidance.US Department of Health and Human Services. “About the Office of Head Start.” Last reviewed February 23, 2011. http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ohs/about/index.html.

Breakfast in North America

Meals can vary widely from one region of the world to another. Therefore, it can be interesting and informative to compare the choices made for a particular meal around the globe. Throughout this section, we will explore the kinds of foods that people consume as they begin their day. Breakfast is a vital meal in any part of the world because it breaks the long overnight fast. An adequate breakfast also provides fuel for the first part of the day and helps improve concentration and energy levels.

Let’s begin with breakfast in North America. On weekdays, North Americans often eat breakfast in a hurry or on the go. Therefore, many people choose breakfast foods that are quick and easy to prepare or can be eaten during the trip to school or the office. As a result, breakfast cereals with milk are extremely popular, and also oatmeal, toast, or bagels. However, on the weekends, some people spend a longer time enjoying a hearty breakfast or going out for brunch. Typical choices emphasize hot foods and include egg dishes, such as omelettes and scrambled or fried eggs, along with pancakes, waffles, french toast, bacon or sausage, and orange juice, coffee, or tea to drink.

Typical Southern and Central American Foods

Tamales, which are popular in Mexico and parts of Central and South America, are made from a shell called a masa that is stuffed with meat or vegetables and steamed or boiled in a wrapper of dried corn leaves. The wrapping is discarded prior to eating.

© Thinkstock

Typical foods in South and Central America include quinoa, which is a grain-like crop that is cultivated for its edible seeds. Quinoa has a high protein and fiber content, is gluten-free, and is particulary tasty cooked in pilafs. Another popular grain product is the tortilla, which is a flatbread made from wheat or corn. Tortillas are used to make a number of dishes, including burritos, enchiladas, and tacos. Fruits and vegetables that are common in Mexico, Central America, and South America include corn, avocados, yucca, peppers, potatoes, mangoes, and papayas. Rice, beans, and a soft cheese known as queso fresco are common to the cuisine in this area of the world as well.

Breakfast in Central America

In this region, the first meal of the day commonly includes huevos rancheros (fried eggs served over a tortilla and topped with tomato sauce). Other popular breakfast dishes include pan dulce (a sweetened bread), along with fried plantains, and a spicy sausage called chorizo. The typical beverage is coffee, which is available in many forms, including café con leche (which is sweetened with lots of milk) and café de olla (with cinnamon and brown sugar). Hot chocolate is also popular and tends to be thick, rich, and flavored with spices such as cinnamon or achiote. In the Yucatan region, huevos motulenos are prepared by spreading refried beans onto fresh tortillas with fried eggs, peas, chopped ham, and cheese.

Italy

Although Italy is a relatively small nation, the difference in cuisine from one region to another can be great. For example, the people of northern Italy tend to rely on dairy products such as butter, cream, and cheeses made from cow’s milk, because the land is flatter and better suited to raising cattle. In southern Italy, there is greater reliance on olive oil than butter, and cheeses are more likely to be made from sheep’s milk.Cooking Light. “Regional Italian Cuisine.” © 2012 Time Inc. Lifestyle Group. http://www.cookinglight.com/food/world-cuisine/regional-italian-cuisine -00400000001340/.

However, there are a number of common ingredients and dishes across the country. Italian cuisine includes a variety of pasta, such as spaghetti, linguine, penne, and ravioli. Other well-known dishes are pizza, risotto, and polenta. Italians are also known for cooking with certain spices, including garlic, oregano, and basil.

France

For centuries, the French have been famous for their rich, extravagant cuisine. Butter, olive oil, pork fat, goose fat, and duck fat are all key ingredients. Common French dishes include quiche, fondue, baguettes, and also creams and tarts. Frites, or French fries, are cut in different shapes and fried in different fats, depending on the region. Fresh-baked bread is also found across the nation from the skinny baguettes of Paris to the sourdough breads in other parts of the country.

Every region of France seems to have its version of coq au vin (braised chicken most often cooked with garlic, mushrooms, and pork fat in wine). For instance, in the northeast, the dish is prepared a la biere (in beer). In Normandy in the northwest, coq au vin is cooked au cidre (in apple cider).Cooking Light. “France’s Regional Cuisine.” © 2012 Time Inc. Lifestyle Group. http://www.cookinglight.com/food/world-cuisine/frances-regional-cuisine -00400000001365/.

Spain

One of the most popular Spanish dishes is paella, a gumbo of rice, seafood, green vegetables, beans, and various meats. The ingredients can vary wildly from one region to another, but rice is always the staple of the dish. Spain is also renowned for its tapas, which are appetizers or snacks. In restaurants that specialize in preparing and serving tapas, diners often order a number of different dishes from a lengthy menu and combine them to make a full meal.

Cooks in Spain rely on a variety of olive oils known for their flavors, ranging from smooth and subtle to fruity and robust. Spanish cuisine combines Roman, Moorish, and New World flavors. Key ingredients include rice, paprika, saffron, chorizo, and citrus fruits.Cooking Light. “Spanish Flavor.” © 2012 Time Inc. Lifestyle Group. http://www.cookinglight.com/food/world-cuisine/specialties-spanish -00400000001203/.

Breakfast in Europe

In some countries, such as France, Italy, and Belgium, coffee and bread are common breakfast foods. However, the people of Great Britain and Ireland tend to enjoy a bigger breakfast with oatmeal or cold cereal, along with meats like bacon and sausage, plus eggs and toast. Tea is also popular in this area, not only for breakfast, but throughout the day. The continental-style breakfast is most commonly associated with France and includes fresh-baked croissants, toast, or a rich French pastry called brioche, along with a hot cup of tea, coffee, or café au lait.

Ethiopia

Ethiopia, located along the Horn of Africa, is one of the few African countries never colonized by a foreign nation prior to the modern era. So, outside influences on the culture were limited. Religious influences from Jewish, Islamic, and Catholic traditions played a larger role on the shaping of Ethiopian cuisine, because of the need to adhere to different dietary restrictions. For example, approximately half of Ethiopians are Muslim and must abstain from eating pork or using spices and nuts to flavor dishes. Ethiopia is also known for dishes that use local herbs and spices, including fenugreek, cumin, cardamom, coriander, saffron, and mustard. Many dishes also reflect a history of vegetarian cooking since meat was not always readily available.Cooking Light. “Ethiopian Tastes.” © 2012 Time Inc. Lifestyle Group. http://www.cookinglight.com/food/vegetarian/ethiopian-tastes-00400000037116/.

In addition, Ethiopians use their hands to eat. First, diners tear off pieces of injera, a spongy, tangy flatbread made from teff flour. Then, they use the pieces as utensils to scoop up vegetables, legumes, and meats from a communal plate.Ethiopian Restaurant.com. “Injera.” © 2004–2012. http://www.ethiopianrestaurant.com/injera.html Teff is a grass that grows in the highlands of Ethiopia and is a staple of the diet.

Central and West Africa

Stretching from mountains in the north to the Congo River, Central Africa primarily features traditional cuisine. Meals are focused on certain staples, including cassava, which is a mashed root vegetable, and also plantains, peanuts, and chili peppers. In West Africa, which includes the Sahara Desert and Atlantic coast, the cuisine features dishes made from tomatoes, onions, chili peppers, and palm nut oil. Popular dishes in both regions include stews and porridges, such as ground nut stew made from peanuts, and also fufu, a paste made from cassava or maize.

Breakfast in Africa

African breakfast choices are strongly influenced by the colonial heritage of a region. The people of West Africa typically enjoy the French continental-style breakfast. However, in the eastern and southern parts of the continent, the traditional English breakfast is more common. In North Africa, breakfast is likely to include tea or coffee, with breads made from sorghum or millet. In East and West Africa, a common breakfast dish is uji, a thick porridge made from cassava, millet, rice, or corn. Kitoza is a delicacy made from dried strips of beef that are eaten with porridge in Madagascar. In Algeria, French bread, jam, and coffee is a typical breakfast. The people of Cameroon eat beignets, which is a doughnut eaten with beans or dipped in a sticky, sugary liquid called bouilli.

India

In India, there is much variety between the different provinces. The nation’s many kinds of regional cuisines can date back thousands of years and are influenced by geography, food availability, economics, and local customs. However, vegetarian diets are common across the nation for religious reasons, among others. As a result, Indian dishes are often based on rice, lentils, and vegetables, rather than meat or poultry. Indian cooking also features spicy seasonings, including curries, mustard oil, cumin, chili pepper, garlic, ginger, and garam masala, which is a blend of several spices.Curry Dishes.com. “Guide to Easy Indian Recipes, Curry Recipes and Curry Spices.” © 2009. http://www.currydishes.com/. India is also known for its breads, including the flatbreads roti and chapati. Dishes that are popular not only in India but around the world include samosa, a potato-stuffed pastry; shahi paneer, a creamy curry dish made out of soft cheese and tomato sauce; and chana masala, chickpeas in curry sauce.Food-India.com. “Your Guide to Indian Food.” © 2003–2011. http://www.food-india.com/.

China

China has the world’s most sizable population. As a result, there are many different culinary traditions across this vast country, which is usually divided into eight distinct cuisine regions. For example, Cantonese cuisine, which is also known as Guangdong, features light, mellow dishes that are often made with sauces, including sweet-and-sour sauce and oyster sauce. Cantonese-style cuisine has been popularized in Chinese restaurants around the world. Another cuisine is known as Zhejiang, which is often shortened to Zhe, and originates from a province in southern China. It features dishes made from seafood, freshwater fish, and bamboo shoots.eChinacities.com. “China’s Eight Cuisines Revealed and How to Identify Them.” ©2008–2011 http://www.echinacities.com/expat-corner/china-s-8-cuisines-revealed -and-how-to-indentify-them.html Key ingredients that are used in several, but not all, of the different regions include rice, tofu, ginger, and garlic. Tea is also a popular choice in most parts of the country.

Chinese use chopsticks as utensils. These small tapered sticks can be made from a variety of materials, including wood, plastic, bamboo, metal, bone, and ivory. Both chopsticks are held in one hand, between the thumb and fingers, and are used to pick up food.

Korea

Korean cuisine is primarily centered around rice, vegetables, and meat. Commonly-used ingredients include sesame oil, soy sauce, bean paste, garlic, ginger, and red pepper. Most meals feature a number of side dishes, along with a bowl of steam-cooked, short grain rice. Kimchi, a fermented cabbage dish, is the most common side dish served in Korea and is consumed at almost every meal. Another signature dish, bibimbap, is a bowl of white rice topped with sautéed vegetables and chili pepper paste and can include egg or sliced meat. Bulgogi consists of marinated, barbecued beef.Korea Tourism Organization. “Food in Korea.” Accessed October 10, 2011. http://visitkorea.or.kr/enu/1051_Food.jsp.

Japan

As in other parts of Asia, rice is a staple in Japan, along with seafood, which is plentiful on this island nation. Other commonly-used ingredients include noodles, teriyaki sauce, dried seaweed, mushrooms and other vegetables, meat, and miso, which is soybean paste. Some favorite foods include the raw fish dishes sashimi and sushi, which are not only popular in Japan, but are also around the world. Typical beverages include green tea and also sake, which is a wine made of fermented rice.Web MD. “Diets of the World: The Japanese Diet.” © 2005–2011. http://www.webmd.com/diet/features/diets-of-world-japanese-diet.

The traditional table setting in Japan includes placing a bowl of rice on the left and a bowl of miso soup on the right side. Behind the rice and the soup are three flat plates which hold the accompanying side dishes. Similar to China, chopsticks are used in Japan and are generally placed at the front of the table setting. At school or work, many Japanese people eat out of a bento lunch box, which is a single-portion takeout or home-cooked meal. Bento boxes typically include rice, fish or meat, and cooked or pickled vegetables.

The Middle East

Middle Eastern cuisine encompasses a number of different cooking styles from Asian countries along the Mediterranean, as well as from North African nations, such as Egypt and Libya. In this part of the world, lamb is the most commonly consumed meat and is prepared in a number of ways, including as a shish kebab, in a stew, or spit-roasted. However, kosher beef, kosher poultry, and fish are eaten as well. Other staples include the fruits and vegetables that grow in the hills of many Middle Eastern countries, such as dates, olives, figs, apricots, cucumber, cabbage, potatoes, and eggplant. Common grains include couscous, millet, rice, and bulghur. Popular dishes include Syrian baba ganoush, which is pureed eggplant, and kibbeh, or lamb with bulghur wheat, from Lebanon.Saveur. “Middle Eastern Recipes.” Accessed December 5, 2011. http://www.saveur.com/solrSearchResults.jsp?fq=Cuisine:Middle\%20Eastern& sitesection=recipes. A flatbread called pita served with hummus, or pureed chickpeas, is another popular dish in this region of the world.

Most people who reside in the Arab countries of the Middle East are Muslim, which can affect their diet. Many Muslims do not consume alcohol or pork. They also observe certain diet-related religious traditions, such as a daytime fast during the month of Ramadan. Other residents of the Middle East include Jews and Christians, and their traditions also affect what foods they eat and how they prepare it. For example, many Jews in Israel keep kosher and follow a set of dietary laws that impact food choices, storage, and preparation.

Breakfast in Asia

To continue the comparison of breakfast around the world, let’s examine the first meal of the day in many parts of Asia. In India, the first meal of the day commonly includes eggs scrambled with spices, potatoes, and onions, as well as fresh fruit and yogurt. Breakfast in China often consists of rice complemented by vegetables, meat, or fish. In Korea, a traditional breakfast would include soup made of either beef ribs or pork intestines, a selection of bread and pastries, rice, and kimchi, which is believed to promote intestinal health. Breakfast in Japan does not greatly differ from any other meal. It typically consists of a bowl of steamed white rice, a small piece of fish, a bowl of miso soup with tofu, vegetables, green tea, and occasionally pickled plums called umeboshi. Hot bowls of noodles in broth topped with pork slices, scallions, and bamboo shoots are also common.

In the different regions of China, congee is prepared with various types of rice, which results in different consistencies.

© Thinkstock

Congee is a common breakfast food across Asia. This dish is a porridge made of rice that is consumed in a number of Asian countries, including Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, and Bangladesh. Congee can be prepared both savory and sweet and contain a variety of ingredients, usually meats, vegetables, and herbs. It can be eaten alone or served as a side dish.