Ceramics

A ceramicAny nonmetallic inorganic solid that is strong eneough to be used in structural applications. is any nonmetallic, inorganic solid that is strong enough for use in structural applications. Traditional ceramics, which are based on metal silicates or aluminosilicates, are the materials used to make pottery, china, bricks, and concrete. Modern ceramics contain a much wider range of components and can be classified as either ceramic oxides, which are based on metal oxides such as alumina (Al₂O₃), zirconia (ZrO₂), and beryllia (BeO), or nonoxide ceramics, which are based on metal carbides such as silicon carbide (carborundum, SiC) and tungsten carbide (WC), or nitrides like silicon nitride (Si₃N₄) and boron nitride (BN).

All modern ceramics are hard, lightweight, and stable at very high temperatures. Unfortunately, however, they are also rather brittle, tending to crack or break under stresses that would cause metals to bend or dent. Thus a major challenge for materials scientists is to take advantage of the desirable properties of ceramics, such as their thermal and oxidative stability, chemical inertness, and toughness, while finding ways to decrease their brittleness to use them in new applications. Few metals can be used in jet engines, for example, because most lose mechanical strength and react with oxygen at the very high operating temperatures inside the engines (approximately 2000°C). In contrast, ceramic oxides such as Al₂O₃ cannot react with oxygen regardless of the temperature because aluminum is already in its highest possible oxidation state (Al³⁺). Even nonoxide ceramics such as silicon and boron nitrides and silicon carbide are essentially unreactive in air up to about 1500°C. Producing a high-strength ceramic for service use involves a process called sinteringA process that fuses the grains of a ceramic into a dense, strong material. Sintering is used to produce high-strength ceramics., which fuses the grains into a dense and strong material (Figure 12.33 "Sintering").

Figure 12.33 Sintering

These photos show the effects of sintering magnesium oxide grains: (a) the microstructure before sintering; (b) the microstructure of the ceramic after sintering for two hours at 1250°C; and (c) the microstructure after sintering for two hours at 1450°C. During the sintering process, the grains fuse, forming a dense and strong material.

One of the most widely used raw materials for making ceramics is clay. Clay minerals consist of hydrated alumina (Al₂O₃) and silica (SiO₂) that have a broad range of impurities, including barium, calcium, sodium, potassium, and iron. Although the structures of clay minerals are complicated, they all contain layers of metal atoms linked by oxygen atoms. Water molecules fit between the layers to form a thin film of water. When hydrated, clays can be easily molded, but during high-temperature heat treatment, called firing, a dense and strong ceramic is produced.

Because ceramics are so hard, they are easily contaminated by the material used to grind them. In fact, the ceramic often grinds the metal surface of the mill almost as fast as the mill grinds the ceramic! The sol-gel processA process used to manufacture ceramics by producing fine powders of ceramic oxides with uniformly sized particles. was developed to address this problem. In this process, a water-soluble precursor species, usually a metal or semimetal alkoxide [M(OR)_n] undergoes a hydrolysis reaction to form a cloudy aqueous dispersion called a sol. The sol contains particles of the metal or semimetal hydroxide [M(OH)_n], which are typically 1–100 nm in diameter. As the reaction proceeds, molecules of water are eliminated from between the M(OH)_n units in a condensation reaction, and the particles fuse together, producing oxide bridges, M–O–M. Eventually, the particles become linked in a three-dimensional network that causes the solution to form a gel, similar to a gelatin dessert. Heating the gel to 200°C–500°C causes more water to be eliminated, thus forming small particles of metal oxide that can be amazingly uniform in size. This chemistry starts with highly pure SiCl₄ and proceeds via the following reactions:

Nature uses the same process to create opal gemstones.

Superalloys

SuperalloysA high-strength alloy based on cobalt, nickel, and iron, often of complex composition, that is used in applications that require mechanical strength, high surface stability, and resistance to high temperatures. are high-strength alloys, often with a complex composition, that are used in systems requiring mechanical strength, high surface stability (minimal flaking or pitting), and resistance to high temperatures. The aerospace industry, for example, requires materials that have high strength-to-weight ratios to improve the fuel efficiency of advanced propulsion systems, and these systems must operate safely at temperatures greater than 1000°C.

Although most superalloys are based on nickel, cobalt, or iron, other metals are used as well. Pure nickel or cobalt is relatively easily oxidized, but adding small amounts of other metals (Al, Co, Cr, Mo, Nb, Ti, and W) results in an alloy that has superior properties. Consequently, most of the internal parts of modern gas turbine jet engines are now made of superalloys based on either nickel (used in blades and disks) or cobalt (used in vanes, combustion chamber liners, and afterburners). The cobalt-based superalloys are not as strong as the nickel-based ones, but they have excellent corrosion resistance at high temperatures.

Other alloys, such as aluminum–lithium and alloys based on titanium, also have applications in the aerospace industry. Because aluminum–lithium alloys are lighter, stiffer, and more resistant to fatigue at high temperatures than aluminum itself, they are used in engine parts and in the metal “skins” that cover wings and bodies. Titanium’s high strength, corrosion resistance, and lightweight properties are equally desirable for applications where minimizing weight is important (as in airplanes). Unfortunately, however, metallic titanium reacts rapidly with air at high temperatures to form TiN and TiO₂. The welding of titanium or any similar processes must therefore be carried out in an argon or inert gas atmosphere, which adds significantly to the cost. Initially, titanium and its alloys were primarily used in military applications, but more recently, they have been used as components of the airframes of commercial planes, in ship structures, and in biological implants.

Composite Materials

Composite materialsA material that consists of at least two distinct phases: the matrix (which constitutes the bulk of the material) and fibers or granules that are embedded within the matrix. have at least two distinct components: the matrix (which constitutes the bulk of the material) and fibers or granules that are embedded within the matrix and limit the growth of cracks by pinning defects in the bulk material (Figure 12.34 "Some Possible Arrangements of Fibers in Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials"). The resulting material is stronger, tougher, stiffer, and more resistant to corrosion than either component alone. Composites are thus the nanometer-scale equivalent of reinforced concrete, in which steel rods greatly increase the mechanical strength of the cement matrix, and are extensively used in the aircraft industry, among others. For example, the Boeing 777 is 9% composites by weight, whereas the newly developed Boeing 787 is 50% composites by weight. Not only does the use of composite materials reduce the weight of the aircraft, and therefore its fuel consumption, but it also allows new design concepts because composites can be molded. Moreover, by using composites in the Boeing 787 multiple functions can be integrated into a single system, such as acoustic damping, thermal regulation, and the electrical system.

Three distinct types of composite material are generally recognized, distinguished by the nature of the matrix. These are polymer-matrix composites, metal-matrix composites, and ceramic-matrix composites.

Figure 12.34 Some Possible Arrangements of Fibers in Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials

The arrangements shown range from discontinuous and randomly oriented to continuous and aligned. The fibers limit the growth of cracks by pinning defects within the matrix.

Fiberglass is a polymer-matrix compositeA compositie that consists of reinforcing fibers embedded in a polymer matrix. that consists of glass fibers embedded in a polymer, forming tapes that are then arranged in layers impregnated with epoxy. The result is a strong, stiff, lightweight material that is resistant to chemical degradation. It is not strong enough, however, to resist cracking or puncturing on impact. Stronger, stiffer polymer-matrix composites contain fibers of carbon (graphite), boron, or polyamides such as Kevlar. High-tech tennis rackets and golf clubs as well as the skins of modern military aircraft such as the “stealth” F-117A fighters and B-2 bombers are made from both carbon fiber–epoxy and boron fiber–epoxy composites. Compared with metals, these materials are 25%–50% lighter and thus reduce operating costs. Similarly, the space shuttle payload bay doors and panels are made of a carbon fiber–epoxy composite. The structure of the Boeing 787 has been described as essentially one giant macromolecule, where everything is fastened through cross-linked chemical bonds reinforced with carbon fiber.

Metal-matrix compositesA composite that consists of reinforcing fibers embedded in a metal or a metal alloy matrix. consist of metals or metal alloys reinforced with fibers. They offer significant advantages for high-temperature applications but pose major manufacturing challenges. For example, obtaining a uniform distribution and alignment of the reinforcing fibers can be difficult, and because organic polymers cannot survive the high temperatures of molten metals, only fibers composed of boron, carbon, or ceramic (such as silicon carbide) can be used. Aluminum alloys reinforced with boron fibers are used in the aerospace industry, where their strength and lightweight properties make up for their relatively high cost. The skins of hypersonic aircraft and structural units in the space shuttle are made of metal-matrix composites.

Ceramic-matrix compositesA composite consisting of reinforcing fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix. contain ceramic fibers in a ceramic matrix material. A typical example is alumina reinforced with silicon carbide fibers. Combining the two very high-melting-point materials results in a composite that has excellent thermal stability, great strength, and corrosion resistance, while the SiC fibers reduce brittleness and cracking. Consequently, these materials are used in very high-temperature applications, such as the leading edge of wings of hypersonic airplanes and jet engine parts. They are also used in the protective ceramic tiles on the space shuttle, which contain short fibers of pure SiO₂ mixed with fibers of an aluminum–boron–silicate ceramic. These tiles are excellent thermal insulators and extremely light (their density is only about 0.2 g/cm³). Although their surface reaches a temperature of about 1250°C during reentry into Earth’s atmosphere, the temperature of the underlying aluminum alloy skin stays below 200°C.